Old Mrs Grey

â€Å"Old Mrs. Grey† Born in 1882, Virginia Woolf was an author, feminist, critic, essayist, pacifist and one of the founders of the Modernist Movement in Literature. Like many of her contemporaries in the Movement, she employed a vivid and descriptive stream-of-consciousness writing style that was rooted in the popular Freudian psychoanalytic theories of the day; and in fact, both of her brothers became psychoanalysts. Woolf regarded herself as â€Å"mad†, having bouts of debilitating depression brought on by her bi-polar disorder. Within her body of work, especially in her essay â€Å"Old Mrs.Grey†, you can see the melancholic/suicidal ideation of her own psyche deployed in the character of Mrs. Grey. She did not hold with the traditional views that suicide was sinful or cowardice. In 1941, she put rocks in her coat pockets and committed suicide by drowning herself in a river near her home in Sussex. The letter she left reasoned that she was â€Å"going mad ag ain and shan’t recover this time†. This is the background on how and possibly why Mrs. Woolf uses the imagery of hopelessness so effectively in this story as a surrogate for her own misery.In the story â€Å"Old Mrs. Grey†, Woolf’s depressively artful use of words describes a lonely 92 year old woman whose body has painfully palsy, â€Å"jerked her body to and fro†, and is in constant arthritic pain which, â€Å"twists her legs† and keeps her confined to her home where she sits in a â€Å"hard chair† and looks with â€Å"aged eyes† that have â€Å"ceased†. She sits by a dying fire in a hard chair, looking at â€Å"The morning spread seven foot by four, green and sunny. â€Å" a reference to the only life she knows now, looking through the door of her cottage at the life outside of it.This is emblematic of her longing for a bygone youth, which Woolf further describes, â€Å"†¦ (she) saw herself at ten, at twenty, a t twenty-five. †, a youth which has fled and left her nothing but memories. The poignant aspect of the story is that while Mrs. Grey is confounded by her longevity, though she longs for the Lord to â€Å"take her†, she never actually voices a propensity to end it herself. The author clearly feels that the advances of medical science that prolong her life, which are but a, â€Å"nail†¦that pinions†¦the body against a wall†, are an insult and occur seemingly against her will.However, as the protagonist notes, the doctor is a good man. The author implies that the doctor is in wonder that Mrs. Grey hasn’t died, but clearly shows that he takes care of her, as required by his oath, regardless of his personal opinion. Clearly, Woolf’s use of imagery and diction brings the reader into Mrs. Grey’s end of life suffering and morose loneliness. The reader, by the end of the story, can empathize with Mrs. Grey’s feeling of the pointlessne ss and uselessness of her remaining days and her longing to â€Å"pass on†, because of Woolf’s competent characterization of Mrs. Grey’s somber situation.

An Inconvenient Truth vs. the Great Global Warming Swindle Essay

Is our planet headed for irreversible disaster? Every reputable scientist in the world believes it is. Left unchecked, global warming’s negative effects on our natural environment could have catastrophic consequences not only for our planet and wildlife but for mankind as well. What is Global Warming you might question? Well, Global warming is caused when a greenhouse gas known as CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere from by burning fossil fuels and is then trapped causing the global temperature to rise more than normal. Many might be thinking that this is a good thing because then it would be longer summers but it is actually quite frightening. Having our population past 7 billion people today has quite the impact on our planet. Burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal gives us electricity to power our factories and run our vehicles but it does emit tons of CO2 into the atmosphere. Even breathing gives off CO2. There is however a natural cause of this as well. The decaying leaves in autumn or forest fires also give off CO2 just as all living things do when they die. The natural levels of CO2 in our atmosphere in the past 600,000 years have been at a non-harmful level, proven by the ice cores collected from the great ice sheets. The argument that was less convincing was the Inconvenient Truth. Although it does have truths into it about how humans are emitting tons of CO2 into the air but Al Gore’s argument ignores some information. The information that is ignored is the natural causes of carbon dioxide emissions as well as the natural fluctuations in temperature that the planet normally has. Even though the burning of fossil fuels has had a small impact on this situation, there still is scientific evidence that humans are not the only cause of Global Warming. There is also the case that Al Gore forgot to mention and that is the fact that the Earth’s climate is not driven by carbon dioxide, man-made or natural. Having CO2 not be the cause of Global Warming, the cause would have to be solar activity, which regulates cloud formation, and  includes solar winds and sun spots. The most concerning part of The Inconvenient Truth is that it uses Al Gore, a recent U.S president as their spokesperson rather than an actual scientist. The reason I believe that Al Gore is used is because he was a country’s leader for a few years so more people would be inclined to believe him rather than the people who were interviewed in The Great Global Warming Swindle. I have found The Great Global Warming Swindle to be more believable because the producers of the film have more resources and data as opposed to The Inconvenient Truth that has just charts. The Great Global Warming Swindle has actual scientists and science professors with information but although they had no data, they seem to be more believable. If Al Gore had actual people come and speak for him that are experts in the field of climatology or otherwise, I would have found his documentary to be more believable. Even though I believe that CO2 is not the cause of Global Warming, it should still be taken into consideration as to how much we put into the atmosphere because it is

Good and Bad Manners in Russia Essay

Observing etiquette and having good manners can make life of foreign people more convenient and helps to and adapt to different national features. Many norms of behavior in Russia are the same as in the whole world, but there are some special conventional rules of conduct which differs from manners of other countries. I want to list some of typical manners which exist in Russia: * For example, it’s a good manner to give up your place to woman or old person in public transport. * Also it’s very good to open the door before woman and hold the door when you go in or out of some place. * When you come to your friends’ home or you are invited to some party, you should take some present. It can be bunch of flowers, bottle of wine or some sweets. * Entering somebody’s house, you should take off your shoes in the entrance hall. * In Russia it’s typical to pay for a woman on a date. Your girlfriend wouldn’t object and it would be pleasant for her. * It’s a national feature to celebrate different occasions with jolly crowd, a lot of alcohol and dishes, playing music and singing. Foreign people can be amazed because some cheerful strangers on the street offer them â€Å"to drink for a company†. Also in Russia exist some special national holidays which people celebrate with feasting (e.g. New Year party, Epiphany, the Day of Motherland’s Protectors, Women’s Day, Easter, the 1st of May, Victory Day, the Day of Independent, the Day of Knowledge etc.) * It’s a bad manner to discuss the private life of colleagues and acquaintances. Also it’s not very good to talk about somebody’s salaries. * In Russia when you meet your friend or acquaintance it’s usual to say â€Å"Hello! How are you?†. You should ask even if you don’t want to know how he is getting on. * If you ask the woman about her age she can take umbrage and it can be very unpleasant for her. * If a man invites a woman to drink some tea in his house in Russia it could be understood as an invitation on dating. * In Russia sexual minority is not so tolerated as in Europe and USA. That is why it’s is better to avoid this subject in conversation. Discussion this theme can slow down making your career. * Russians don’t like when people speak foreign languages which they don’t understand. It can provoke distrust. * In case of celebrating some event, it’s impolite to refuse of glass when everybody is drinking especially in the moment when somebody proposes a toast to somebody’s health or success of business. Notwithstanding of  differences between Russian and foreign good and bad manners, there are common features of polite behavior. It proves that our country has fitting culture level and we must be proud of it.

Assignment 4.3 Answering Questions P153& P 160 Essay

Assignment 4.3 Answering Questions P153& P 160 - Essay Example en if athletes are the point of interest in the Olympic Games, yet there are ways through which the rights of the athletes can be protected without necessarily supporting actions of countries whose actions are an affront to the goals of the Olympics. There are several efforts that the author concerts, as a way of providing his viewpoints with evidence. He quotes authorities in social sciences and political studies such as Anita DeFrantz and Tim Wendel to validate his claims and propositions, respectively. He also adduces historical and diplomatic realities to validate his viewpoints. For example, he mentions: China’s invasion of Tibet in 1950s; China attenuating democratic space and suppressing liberty presently; and China being Sudan’s supplier of arms and chief buyer of Sudan’s oil. One of the views (Reader’s view of the situation) stresses that boycotting Olympics is not the solution to the problems that undermine the goals and essence of the games. The view divulges that instead, boycotts frustrate the interests of the athletes themselves. The antithesis of this view is that even though boycotts may undermine the interests of athletes, yet, the failure to address a host country’s injustices is a threat to the promise of peace. The writer sufficiently acknowledges these opposing views by: discussing their essence and viability; issuing examples to underscore these views (for instance Russia and China’s political stance towards human rights are repeatedly referred to); and suggesting and qualifying the panacea to the problem. The conclusion emphasizes the ineffectiveness of boycotts in tackling injustices, the injurious pitfalls of holding Olympic Games in repressive host countries, and a possible nostrum to the problem as being workable. This nostrum (proposition) is establishing permanent Olympic sites in countries that uphold the values that these Olympic Games promote. Traditional arguments would make the essay different by arguing that

Final Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Final - Essay Example The North/South conflict in The Octoroon elaborated on the consequence of the secession of southern states, particularly Louisiana, from the United States. It gave rise to the prohibition from marriage of Whites and Octoroons or those which bears 1/8 black heritage. The segregation between Whites and those with black heritage were presented so critical in the play. In Shenandoah, marriage or romantic relationship was not emphasized. The North/South conflict was introduced as it is. Conflict of interest due to the regional associations of the character which complicated issues relating to personal engagements. In the latter, the political facet of the North/South conflict was stressed. [Student’s Last Name] 2 2. From the late 19th century to early 20th century, there were significant changes in the entertainment as a business. What were those changes and how do they reflect what we see in the entertainment today? In the later part of the 19th century, the United States develope d home entertainment, theatrical shows and folk music and dances as observed and eventually copied from different countries like Ireland, Canada and Germany. The entertainment industry in the United States focused more on consolidating different types of culture into one state aiming for a centralized entertainment that would attract more audience around the globe. Immigration surged and many foreign artist were recruited for different theatrical and musical productions which contributed a lot to the entertainment industry of the US. In 1880, years after the Civil War and the widespread emancipation of Blacks, a great variety of performers and artists flocked into one. As we can see today, Blacks are given equal opportunity. Also, more and more foreign artists are immigrating to the US to pursue career in music. 3. How were the immigrant/ethnic acts in vaudeville different from the other entertainments we’ve studied that featured people who were different from the â€Å"norm al† citizen? In principle, foreign citizens or immigrants or both essentially had their individual upbringing. Since they have grown up with the kind of culture which is customary and prevalent in their mother nations, it would most likely be reflected on their entertainment style, whether it is in music, dance, comedy, magic or any other type of artistic skill. [Student’s Last Name] 3 In 1880, years after the American Civil War, the United States started to embrace variety in entertainment. There was a mixture in the entertainment industry with different races and colour transpired into the performances of many immigrant performers. The acts in vaudeville of immigrants differ from the normal citizen largely because of cultural variations and customary influence which until now is still apparent just like musicals which play in Broadway that depict some of the old English love stories and events. PART II 1. Compare the character of the American people as it is exhibited in The Octoroon with the character as seen through Buffalo Bill’s Wild West. What changed and what remained the same? How do they compare with our attitudes about similar issues today? More than just the recurring scenes featuring cowboys, shooting and horses, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West highlighted the kind of life there was in the west or the so-called

Annotated Bibliography for Utilitarianism in the health care system Essay

Annotated Bibliography for Utilitarianism in the health care system - Essay Example The book further illustrates that utilitarianism leads to maximization of the common goods. In this case, the author uses the word â€Å"good† referring to optimal achievement that all members of the society tend to receive in matters related to health. This situation emerges because of various political interests and agendas in the health care system. Moreover, the book further discusses that the utilitarian perspective does not support the desired good in the healthcare system. This means that the utilitarianism does not support access to affordable and essential health care services. This is because utilitarian perspective tends to concentrate much on the policy priorities. Another significant issue discussed in the book is the fact that the concept utilitarianism is far behind access to recommendable healthcare services. This is because individuals tend to put their personal priorities ahead of health issues. This book tends to be of significant important in relation to the issues associated with utilitarianism especially in the health sector. The book will be of significant help in my research work because it supports the fact utilitarianism is not of any importance in the health sector. Utilitarianism only indicates negative outcomes especially in relation to health

Liberal and Realists view on NAFTA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Liberal and Realists view on NAFTA - Essay Example The following paper compares and contrasts liberal and realist views on NAFTA. Liberals argue that free trade is advantageous only when the margin is not at risk of economic manipulation by the central player in the agreement, which is the United States in NAFTA’s case (Chan 7). This argument comes from advocates who believe in the protection of individual freedoms and civil rights, including uncompromising interests like natural surroundings. In contrast, realist advocates emphasize the core significance of power and economic interests. These emphases revolve around the principles of intergovernmentalism, least-common denominator negotiating, and stern limits on future handovers of independence (Chan 12). This realist view suits the most recent events in North America in the course of its regional presence despite originating from the EU. Liberals are against government involvement in top economic projects or activities through projectionist regulations like duties, grants, and quotas (Chan 9). Realists’ logic on government involvement is that a country’s welfare is the main concern over international objectives (Chan 16). Liberals’ focus is on general economic development as proven by rises in GDP. This basis means liberals expected NAFTA to generate a rise in exports of products and services, raise employment rates, raise overseas investments, and trigger general economic growth. In comparison, realists believe a nation should accumulate wealth and power through self-adequacy. As a result, realists were directly against a free trade convention such as NAFTA during its formation in the early 1990s since it endangered the local manufacturing industry through competition and forms trade shortfalls. Liberalism relates to the Dependency theory, which contends that central and marginal economic affairs are concerns for a specific type of fundamental economist (Chan 11).

Cordoba House Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cordoba House - Essay Example People's opinions differ greatly, as not all inhabitants of New York are looking forward to seeing the building being constructed there. Personally, I strongly believe that the Cordoba building should be moved elsewhere. This would be a very sensible step; it would prevent unrest from taking place. Many lives may also be lost in that unrest, hence it is in the best interest of everyone to move the building elsewhere. Based on the First Amendment to the United States, which is part of the Bill of Rights. The amendment guarantees freedom of religion, free exercise of religion, and freedom of speech. American society is diverse and is made up of people belonging to different religions. Cordoba house can be built anywhere, even two blocks from ground zero. They do have the right that guarantee by the first amendment, but it does not mean they have right they can make it right. This is relates to human morality. The majority of people, especially those families whose members died on Septe mber 11, feel that the Mosque is a â€Å"slap in the face† for them and for the society in general. This building will always remind on events taking place on that terrible date, and the darkest day in American history .The life of people who suffered from those events would become a terrible nightmare. The Park 51 was initiated by both American and Muslim representatives in order to build the proper relations between these two nations and to enhance the place of religion in the life of people but it was funded by Muslim. It was stated that Cordoba House project calls for a â€Å"15-story community center including a mosque, a temple, a worship place for Christian community and Catholic, performance art center, gym, swimming pool and other public spaces† (Bliman n.d.). It sounds very great and easy to attract to all community from every religion, gender, class, ages, and to visit and build relation with each other. The problem is why they have to build religion practic e inside the building, even though their intention is to build better understanding among various faiths. Do they have to build religion practice inside the building. There is a lot of way to unify all the religion they can make events every week or month where every religion can have their own workshop in one place. It is impossible to enhance the place of religion in one place. Imagine Muslim is praying and worship in their room with a loud sound. Next to it, Christian is worshipping their God by singing with a loud song and enthusiasm. Catholic and Jewish is praying with hymn. How they are going to react with each other when they feel being disturbed by other people that being worshipped their own God. It is like putting oil in the water which will never mix together. History has proved it time and again; it is been thousands of year people always fight each other in the name of religion. Many people died because of that do we have to add more pages to history of holy war. Everyb ody knows this building is a beautiful building with very proper architecture and elements, and this building will be added to beautiful constructions found in the New York city. But according to CNN Opinion research Corporation poll it showed that about 70 percent of all Americans oppose this plan. While only 29 percent were in favor of the park. People that want to build Park 51 should listen to this voice. They build this house based on tolerance between people. If they want to show tolerance they should consider this voice. This is like put salt into the wound that

American vs. UAE Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American vs. UAE Culture - Essay Example The culture of this country has unique social and cultural characteristics, which include dialects, music, art, social habits, cuisine, and folklore. This has made the country unique and diverse ethnically and racially. One major contributing factor was the large-scale immigration from many different countries through the history of the country (Graham, 2008). The major influencers of American culture came from the British. That is, English, Scottish, and Irish settlers who colonized the colonial America. This contributes greatly to the spread of English language, the legal system, and the cultural inheritances. It resulted to formative influence. The rest of the influences came from Germany, France, and Italy. The culture of America encompasses both liberal and conservative elements. The country also has military and scientific competitiveness, political structures, and risk taking expressions. This has challenged me in a great way and I have always admired this culture. Their polit ical structures are accommodative of the foreign investors who contribute in large scale in the USA economy. Their political structures have influenced the world over and play a major role to determining and overseeing that democracy and peace have been maintained in the world. I am a great advocator of democracy and I feel that the will of the majority of these people should be respected. In this country, I would feel free to interact with various business people who have been my mentors (Marsden, 2006). The American culture is also characterized by consistent ideological principles such as individualism, egalitarianism, and faith in freedom and democracy. The culture is also shaped by the variety of expressions due to the countries lager geographic scale and demographic diversity. The culture is also flexible and it is highly symbolic. It has invited researchers to research on it and most of them have found out that the culture is mythic. They mean that the culture of this country is a mystery that is yet to be unveiled. Other researchers say that the culture is exceptionalism (Neil & Kean, 1997). The culture also includes some principles, which evolved from the Native Americans including other cultural and ethnic subtitles. The dominant of these cases is the inclusion of the culture of African Americans and different cultures from Latin Americans. These cultures are highly exported to the modern world through mass media such as television, which are the greatest influencers in the modern world. Other influencers have been radio, music and books (Plotnicov, 1990). There is no official language in the US but 30 federal states have passed a legislation, which makes English the official language. However, the culture of this country accommodates other foreign languages. There are 891 different languages spoken in this country Spanish being the second language spoken by many people. I am conversant with the English language and this would not pose a threat when I go there to do business. Being from United Arabs Emirates, the dominant religion in my country is Islam. The Muslim people are mostly conservative in their culture and like to uphold what they believe in. However, the religion of America is mostly Christian. This has shaped the country a lot in terms of their attitude. Majority of the Americans claim that religion played an important role in their lives. This is according to Pew Global Attitudes Project, of

Liberal Art Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Liberal Art Studies - Essay Example Plunkitt would agree that there was such a thing as an honest profit and a dishonest profit. If political party, State, and personal interests stand to gain an advantage, he would see such a venture as something that was as justifiable and therefore being an honest profit. On the other hand, he would see stealing from others as dishonest profit and would condemn such an action. In other words, he may justify â€Å"a little† corruption as long as it doesn’t amount to stealing from others and as long as it benefits the State as well as himself. From a business perspective, Plunkitt does seem to have the dynamics of organizational behavior right. Buying something for a low price and selling it for a higher price is the essence of business, and Plunkitt’s views were in line with this sentiment. For him, corruption means actually stealing from others, while trying to make a profit is not corrupt at all. Plunkitt also believed in seeing opportunities and taking them and realized that who you know is more important than what you know. Both of these concepts are widely seen as accurate in the business

The Problems Surrounding Corporate Governance Are Rooted In the Essay

The Problems Surrounding Corporate Governance Are Rooted In the Peculiar Nature of Corporate Shareholding - Essay Example This essau declares that the recent economic crises and scandals have forced much expert attention on the system of corporate governance, its regulations, leading to the public disclosure of many of the financial figures associated with the processes. Here, attention has been specifically focussed on the shortcomings, related to the primacy of shareholder values that dominate the entire system. This paper makes a conclusion that the shareholders in most of the cases did not have a major role in creating the major financial crises of the 2000-2001 that had resulted in the economic breakdown of many of the large financial corporations. Despite some line of thinking that did not put the shareholders entirely above the line of guilt, it is more or less certain, that in majority of the cases the shareholders are mere bystanders, and do not have the power or the status to handle or interfere in the corporate governance, though it is certain that their investments are considered as playing a dominant role. Thus, it is evident that in this peculiar nature of the corporate shareholding system, where the shareholders have no rights on the nature of the investments made, yet their financial capital interests are given primary importance, do not have much of role in the problems faced in the line of the modern corporate governance. The problems within the corporate governance emerge mo re from the lack of effective regulatory and monitoring systems, that should focus more on the activities of the assets managers and investors, and the nature of the investments that are being made.

Heaters Essay Example for Free

Heaters Essay As the name implies, heaters are those thermostatically controlled devices that are employed for heating matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas. In the past, humans could not think of the ease to cook, wash, manufacture, melt, wash, which is present these days. The availability of clean water is possible due to the arrival of heaters. The modernization in industrial sector became possible due to the complex heating units functioning day and night. From domestic usage of washing, bathing, cooking, drinking, space-heating, to offices, from commercial utilization to car-heating, and of course, the processing and manufacturing in industrial setting, the heating has brought convenience never imagined. Also with the inception of HVAC technology (Heating Ventilating and Air-Conditioning), heaters have been extensively used. The use of liquid and gaseous fuels has increased the demand of heating elements so much so that advancement in the field of heaters has been categorized into low, medium and high temperature processes. Therefore, numerous types of heaters have been invented to satisfy the ever growing needs of space-heating, liquid heating, or industrial heating. Depending upon the nature of the fuel or energy being employed, the heaters are mainly classified as: Natural Gas Heaters: Also known as LPG Heaters are highly desirable for space-heating of larger volumes. These efficient heaters have the operating principle of Bunsen burner.   Electric Heaters: These heaters utilize a resistor for conversion of electrical energy into heat by Joule’s principle. The 100% efficient heaters are perfectly safe for live beings, since they do not affect the quality of air. These popular heaters are available in either Convection form or Radiator one. Oil filled/Diesel heaters: Expensive running heaters are still used because of the high thermal capacity. Hence for boiling systems and for other numerous industrial purposes, Oil filled heaters have proven to be the ideal choice (Lamb, Eddie, 2010). Solar heaters: Solar thermal collectors and photo voltaic cells combine to form solar heaters. These heaters store sunlight and then produce electricity from it for heating purposes. Infra red heaters:   The transference of energy takes place when electromagnetic waves are emitted from a hotter body to a less hot one. The amount of heat transference is a function of temperature of hotter body. The history of the electric heater dates back to around the late 1800s, during which Thomas Edison created the light bulb. In fact, Thomas Edison is credited with inventing the first electric heater in around 1882-1883. He discovered that passing current through a large resistance would evolve heat, as the material would get hotter. The heater was part of his three-way distribution system to provide light, heat and power to homes (Beals, Gerard, 1996). The gas heater was invented round about Edison invented the electric heater. An year after the invention of the Bunsen burner, the company Petit and Smith first commercialized the gas heater in 1856. However, this heater was crude and very inefficient, as air was directly heated and the volume of air heated was very small which meant that only the immediate surroundings were heated. The first real, efficient gas heater was invented in 1881 by Sigismund Leoni, a British engineer. Instead of heating air, he heated asbestos, which could be heated to a higher temperature and then heat the surroundings. The electric heater relies on the basic principle of electricity that passing a current through a large resistance increases the temperature of the conductor, which thereby heats the surroundings. This is known as the â€Å"Joules Principle†. Electric heaters work on the same principle, using a large coil of wire to heat the surrounding air, and a fan in the heater propels the hot air out into the surroundings. Gas heaters on the other hand, use the heat from the burning of natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas to heat a mass of solid, usually fire clay or other refractory material to heat the surrounding air, and then fanned out. Indoors however, the direct method of heating the air via the heat produced from burning the gas is used. Convection currents are then set up which help to transfer the heat to the surroundings. The development of the heater can be seen as significant progress in the history of mankind. The invention of the heater means that people can now live in a cold environment without causing much discomfort or harm. Industries are now able to provide the specific temperatures needed for industrial processes which can increase the efficiency of the process, minimize the costs incurred, and decrease the power consumption, thereby saving energy. As heaters become more and more popular, individuals and companies are constantly finding new ways to provide better, economical, and eco-friendly ways to provide heating. This means that new technologies are being invented, which helps better the society and living conditions of man. Heaters are one of the inventions which have a myriad of uses. Heaters allow humans to live in cold conditions where it was dangerous to live in i.e. researchers in Antarctica can live there the whole year round due to heaters. They allow for industrial processes which require a high temperature, which would not have been possible previously as advances in technology increase, it maybe possible for heaters to become smaller, more compact, and so more efficient in the near future.

Mainstream Literature Does this Worsen the Text?

Mainstream Literature Does this Worsen the Text? How far does conceding to the popular mainstream strip a text of its literariness? (Explore the ways in which your chosen essay texts negotiate competing demands of literary and the popular) William Faulkner said of Ernest Hemingway: He has never been known to use a word that might send a reader to the dictionary (UOI, 1947) attempting to demean the literariness of his works. Hemingway responded; Poor Faulkner. Does he really think big emotions come from big words? I know them all right. But there are older and simpler and better words, and those are the ones I use. (Ross, 1950) His response to Faulkners elitism suggests that a text does not have to adhere to the implicit, often judgemental rules that define a piece of work as literary in order to be worthy of such a title. Using the poems of Linton Kwesi Johnson and The Hunger Games by Susanne Collins, I will analyse how both authors navigate the fine line between what is popular and what is literary, and whether this affects the overall impact of their work or its integrity as literary fiction. I intend to argue that a text does not have to present itself in a literary fashion in order to be considered worthy of the te rm literary, and similarly, literary texts can exist without conforming to the demands of mainstream culture whilst still being appreciated by modern society. In its simplest definition, literature is simply a written work; it is only when we place the boundaries of what is considered intellectual, or art, upon it that there becomes any kind of speculation as to whether a writers work is literary or not. In contrast, popular culture is a term associated with primarily Western entertainment, news, technology and sports. In its initial conception, the idea of popular was one associated with the uneducated working class, in comparison to the literary culture of the upper classes. Pop culture was the culture of those outside the power establishment; it was entirely separate from scorned and excluded by those in power, who had their own official culture (Berrong, 1986). As a result, there is an ongoing elitism toward popular culture, with many labelling it trite or unintelligent, or suggesting that low culture stress substance, form and being totally subservient; there is no explicit concern with abstract ideas or even with fictional forms of contemporary social problems and issues content to depict traditional working class values. (Gans, 2008) As a result, creators and audiences of popular culture are by association considered to be superficial or lacking in intellect. Popular fiction is defined as plot-driven fictional works, written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre, (French, 2010) so as to appeal to mainstream readers who buy into the pre-existing format because it is familiar, recognisable and easily digested. These so-called conventions of popular fiction are specific settings, roles, events and values that define individual genres and their subgenres (McKee, 1997) and often, publishing houses are known to present obligatory guidelines for authors to follow in order to have their works considered for publication. Any literature in fitting with these conventions is usually considered separate from literary fiction by critics for being stereotypical and poorly written; those texts are created solely to provide escapism to its readership as opposed to meaningful, carefully crafted prose that might incite thought or action. Literary fiction refers to works that hold so-called literary merit, which here means that they compr ise of political commentary, comments on societal hegemonic ideologies and the human condition. Like its popular counterpart, literary fiction is written purposely with its own set of conventions in mind, with the difference being that the focus of the works involved lingers more on themes than on fast-paced plot progression or audience appeal. It is arguable that pop culture is the easiest way to appease the mainstream, an audience fundamentally made up of young people; technology has transformed culture, especially popular culture, into the primary educational site in which youth learn about themselves and the larger world (Giroux, 2000). There has always been contentious debate regarding the discrepancies between high art, a category into which literature falls, and popular culture. However, it is arguable that this debate is obsolete; the distinction between the two is blurred just because a piece of work is easily accessible and appeals to the masses, does not necessarily sacr ifice its credibility or deem it an unintelligent piece of work that is lacking in thought. A televised adaptation of Austens Pride and Prejudice, or Baz Luhrmans modern reimagining of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, for instance, could be considered literary in an intertextual manner, being as their origins hail from classic literature. For instance, author John Storey would argue that the quantitative definition of culture has the problem that much high culture is also popular (Storey, 2014), making the two difficult to separate into distinguishable categories. It also could be said that pop culture is more intrinsic to society than so called high art, because it wields so much influence over the general public and which media they do or do not consume; in the struggle over the symbolic order that characterizes our times, popular culture developed by name brands and various forms of media, including the Hollywood film industry is crucial in creating the identities and representat ions that our youth embrace (Reynolds 2006). Linton Kwesi Johnson is a Jamaican writer based in the United Kingdom the second living poet, and the only poet of colour, to be immortalised in the Penguin Modern Classics collection. Johnson is a dub poet a genre that is, according to him, overcompensation for deprecation and as a writer, refuses to conform to English standards of poetry; he uses Creole patois as a political statement, defying the expectations society holds for poets. This phonetic, unstandardized transcription of his own language is certainly not that of great literary figures Jane Austen, George Orwell or Charles Dickens, and yet, he has been awarded the Golden PEN award in 2012 for a Lifetimes Distinguished Service to Literature. His idea of poetry has been passed through generations, and did not simply consist of standard Received Pronunciation English or what was deemed publishable but included traditional slave songs. Johnsons poetry is heavily inspired by the Black Panther movement, a group in which he be came active during his school years; their belief being that violence in the face of constant racism is necessary, using militant revolutionary force against the racist police and segregation of 1960s London. He himself describes his writing as a political act [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] poetry was a cultural weapon (Wroe, 2008). It was during Johnsons childhood that the SAS law, or the 1824 vagrancy act, was reintroduced, which enabled the police to arrest someone they suspected had intentions of committing a crime, allowing police to exploit and arrest people of colour in London without any evidence. The subject matter of his poetry is usually political, depicting his experiences as an African-Carribean living in Britain, but has also focused on foreign policies and police brutality. Johnsons poem If I woz a tap natch poet serves not only as an example of his subversion from the conventions of literary work but simultaneously describes his rejection of the canon, and his interstitial position between musician and poet, between high art and popular culture, between politics and aesthetics (McGill 2003). For instance, he begins if I waz a tap-natch poet, like Chris Okigbo, Derek Walcot ar T.S Eliot (Johnson, 2004); the opening challenges any predispositions suggesting that canons operate according to transparent principles of coherency or homogeneity. Chris Okigbo signals an alternative to the Western Canon advocated by critics. In contrast, Derek Walcott is a Nobel laureate, and his appearance suggests a movement back towards conservative tastes. However, the inclusion of T.S. Eliot demonstrates that the canon Johnson is crafting is unfortunately one made up entirely of people of colour. He continues by saying if he were top-notch himself, he would write a poem so h dyam deep/dat it bittah-sweet (Johnson, 2004), implying that the works of Okigbo, Walcott and Eliot create work that is deep or poses intellectual questions, a prerequisite of literariness. Moreover, the poem appears to carry another irony when analysed more thoroughly in that T. S Eliot appears as a token white poet, which is reflective of the way in which right-wing institutions that anthologise the zeitgeist of the times, such as anthologies, are known for including very few people of colour, sometimes just a single person, to demonstrate supposed diversity and avoid criticism or backlash from minorities. On perhaps the other end of the literary spectrum to Johnson is Suzanne Collins, an American writer, renowned for her young adult dystopian trilogy The Hunger Games. She was born in Harvard, Connecticut but being the daughter of a military officer, consistently moved across America. Consequently, inspired by her fathers career in the Air Force, her work tackles themes of war and its effects on the world, including poverty, starvation and innocent civilian death. The Hunger Games is set in Panem, a post-apocalyptic America made up of the Capitol and 12 surrounding districts; every year, two children from each district, male and female, are chosen to take part in an obligatory, televised fight to the death, known as the Hunger Games. The staggering popularity of her work resulted in her being named one of Time magazines most influential people of 2010 and as of March 2012, became the best-selling Kindle author of all time. It is not unusual for creators of literature to use so called p op culture tropes and appropriate them into high culture works; with the blurred lines of literary and popular first identifiable in the Romantic period where romance fiction became a substantial influence on future literature, despite having been previously disparaged. More recent examples include Andy Warhols use of the Campbell soup can in his pop art, as well as artist Jeff Koons conceptualising kitsch and pornography, subject matters often vilified for lacking in culture or finesse, to create new work which is supposedly worthier of the label high art. This same technique of intertextuality and the idea that any one piece of literature is created by combining several others is arguably evidenced in Collins dystopian novel; on the surface, it is a young adult romance implementing the typical formulaic conventions and character archetypes evidenced in the majority of mainstream pop culture, arguably inspired by the critical success of Stephanie Meyers Twilight saga. However, when discussing the origin of The Hunger Games, Collins cites the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur as the most significant inspiration for her book a classic Greek tale wherein Minos forces the people of Athens to sacrifice 14 women and children to be slaughtered by the Minotaur in the never-ending labyrinth. She also interweaved the concept of the Roman gladiator games; an all-powerful and ruthless government, people forced to fight to the death, and the games role as a source of popular information (Scholastic, 2010) and in doing so, she successfully brings re nowned, classic Greek literature to the mainstream audiences, albeit in a more easily digestible fashion, by reimagining the stories in a fashion that appeals to pop culture fans. Contrastingly, Johnsons poetry focuses not on fabled morality tales, but on real life issues of racism, segregation and police brutality, particularly in London, where he grew up. It can be assumed that, as this is not a topic to which popular culture utilise for its audiences, he does not concern himself with the opinions of critics, or of his audience for that matter, on his work. It is my understanding that it is more important for Johnson to promote anti-racial messages and protest against the mistreatment of people of colour. Johnson himself said that writing anti-establishment poetry during the Race Riots could be considered an act of protest, an act that could have been to his great detriment as a result of the United Kingdoms fervent racism. This shows Johnson to have integrity he is writing about what he believes is important and worth saying; one way to perform a test of literary merit must be, first, the sincerity of the writer. I would be willing, I think, even to add t he seriousness of purpose of the writer (Peters, 2006). From this, one can argue that Johnsons sincerity in his writing of his experiences, and his determination to express anger and encourage reactions to political issues makes his work literary. In If I waz a tap-natch poet, he purposely distinguishes himself from any of the other writers he mentions; he seems to exist in a liminal space, and it is difficult to discern where he sees himself within the hierarchy of literary and popular. It is arguable that he doesnt consider himself a part of either category, because neither of them serve any importance to him. However, whether a text is deemed literary or popular is very rarely a decision made by its own creator; Johnson is simply distancing himself from the process, as he feels it is unnecessary. Although his work holds no evidence of popular culture references, it is certainly popular amongst a specific minority group; people of colour. They have experienced many of the atrociti es he writes of, and can relate to them in a way that the white Western mainstream cannot. As a result, I would argue that Johnsons writing is certainly popular amongst a niche audience, and that appealing to the mass market is not the only category that makes a text worthy of the title. Johnson first became active in the poet community in school, but he was not published until 1974, in the journal Race Today. In the same year, Harper Lees controversial bildungsroman To Kill a Mockingbird was also released. Both Johnson and Lee tackle the subject matter of racism, albeit in different areas of the world, and Lees novel is regarded as one of the greatest of our generation. The difference between Harper Lee and Linton Kwesi Johnson is that one is a privileged white woman, and the other a Jamaican man of working-class background, whose poetry is not isnt carefully pre-packaged in the standard Oxford Dictionary English, the mainstream being young white heterosexual teenagers, who of cour se, prefer to access literature in this way. Johnson is angry about his mistreatment, and that of so many other people of colour, at the hands of white policemen and politicians and civilians. When declaring a text worthy of literary merit, critics significantly consider the moral or messages the story is trying to create, usually through the medium of symbolism or allegory. The metonymic concept of bread and circuses becomes particularly apt when looking at The Hunger Games, as the Latin translation Panem et circenses served as inspiration for the name of the novels fictional setting, Panem. The phrase, first used by Juvenal, who was degrading the sheep-like nature of common people, their selfishness and obliviousness to wider concerns and civic duty, alludes to an appeasement with a lack of substance. It refers to the way in which supposedly democratic governments make use of superficial distractions to satisfy the immediate, shallow requirements of a populace in order to continue to manipulate them for hegemonic gain. Although this could make reference to the Capitols attempts to placate the districts so they cannot overthrow their regime and dismantle their hierarchy, it could also be an allegory for the way in which popular culture works in the real world. When taking a Marxist reading of the novel, it is arguable that Collins was inspired by the Industrial Revolution, most noticeably the living conditions in 19th century Europe. Katniss illustrates this by saying What must it be like, I wonder, to live in world where food appears at the press of a button? How would I spend the hours I now commit to combing the woods for sustenance if it were so easy to come by (Collins, 2008). Collins plot coincides with Marxs socialist philosophy; Panem is comprised of two groups, the proletariat, or the people of the districts, and the bourgeoisie, or the Capitol. This highlights what is a fundamentally unfair system wherein the majority of wealth is held by the minority whilst the general public struggle to maintain a living. This is further evidenced by President Snows hosting of the Hunger Games, themselves, wherein his government hold complete power over the Districts and their people, who have absolutely no hope of ascending to higher status. Katniss, the protagonist of the novel, lives in the district that is hardest hit by the Capitols regime. She represents the lowest of the proletariat, whereas the closer the districts are to the Capitol, the more advantageous; Its tempting, so tempting, when I see the bounty waiting there before me. And I know that if I dont get it, someone else will. That the Career Tributes who survive the bloodbath will divide up most of these life-sustaining spoils. (Collins, 2008) Here, Katniss describes the Career tributes are more likely to survive, having received training for their entire lives to prepare for the games. Whilst Districts One and Two still have to supply children for the games, this is a mere faà §ade, bread and circuses; Snow makes the districts think everything is equal, but in actuality, the Career tributes are much likelier to survive and win the Games, thus maintaining the bourgeo isie whilst slowly killing off the poor. However, Katniss follows the Marxist ideology and seizes the means of production. Collins writes Without a victor, the whole thing would blow up in the Gamemakers faces. Theyd have failed the Capitol. Might possibly even be executed slowly and painfully, while the cameras broadcast it to every screen in the country (Collins, 2008) By refusing to conform, rejecting the role of victor and encouraging Peeta to do the same, this forces the Gamemakers to change the rules and allow both to win. Katniss is still aware, though, that the Capitol would have the power to make an example of the Gamemakers to restore order. These allusions to Marxism and communist theory imply that there is a lot more depth to Collins work than it at first seems; by incorporating themes of real life class issues, she is commenting on societal problems and posing a moral question regarding Americas modern class system. When asked how he would define literariness, critic Walter Van Tilburg Clark declared the final test of literary merit, is the power to endure obviously such a test cannot be applied to a new or recent work, and one cannot, I think, offer soundly an opinion on the probability of endurance (Peters, 2006). Here, he is arguing that the most significant criterion of the definition is that if a text can endure, it can be considered worthy of literary merit. It is not, then, necessary for a text to follow the other rules regarding context, connotations or conveying a higher meaning; if a text is popular, it is likely to endure. The Hunger Games Trilogy spent 50 weeks on the New York Times bestseller list and has been translated to the screen as a multi-million dollar film series. Such a lengthy stay at the top of a highly-regarded rating system is suggestive of endurance, and therefore, regardless of the issues the trilogy presents in terms of stereotypical pop-culture tropes and character moulds, it can be defined as literary. In addition, the concept of literariness is one that is inherently subjective; particularly because aesthetic value is entirely based in personal preference. It is, according to critics, a relic of a scholarly elite.Similarly, the predispositions regarding popular texts and its dismissal as uncultured also seem to be outdated views stemming from old-fashioned beliefs. The examination and understanding of popular culture, therefore, is necessary to understanding ourselves, our identities and the world that surrounds us. A text that is considered brilliant by one, will be terrible to another; we each have different interests and tastes, and there is never going to be unanimity when defining literary and popular and the difference between them. The study of popular culture enables us to consider literature in a less judgemental, more open-minded fashion, voiding the inherent laws of what makes a text literary or fundamentally good. Popular cultur e does not exclusively lend itself only to companies to churn out poorly-written prose lacking in value and increase financial revenue, although it is manipulated by those in power to detract from real life issues; just because this is the case some of the time, it doesnt define all literature that falls into the category of popular as unworthy of also being literary. The two terms are not mutually exclusive, and a text does not give up its right to being one by adhering to some characteristics of the other. The spectrum of defining literary and popular categories, albeit arbitrary in nature, which are not binary opposites in terms of literature, is, in my opinion, one that is entirely personal, and each individual will hold opinion on where any given text falls; that does not make them true, as there are no correct answers. Word Count: 3496 _____________________________________________________________________ References Johnson, L. K (2002) If I Woz a Nap-Natch Poet, Mi Revalueshanary Fren: Selected Poems London: Penguin Collins, Suzanne (2008) The Hunger Games New York, Scholastic University of Iowa (1967) An Interview With William Faulkner The Western Review: A Literary Quarterly, Volume 15, Number 4 Ross, Lillian (1950) Profiles: How Do You Like It Now, Gentlemen? The New Yorker, F. R. Publishing Corporation, New York. Berrong, R.M (1986) Rabelais and Bakhtin: Popular Culture in Gargantua and Pantagruel University of Nebraska Press Gans, Herbert J (2008) Popular culture and high culture Basic Books. pp. 8-10 Storey, J (2014) From Popular Culture to Everyday Life Routledge French, C.T Literary Fiction vs Genre Fiction[online] http://www.authorsden.com/categories/article_top.asp?catid=10id=18884 (accessed December 2016) McKee, R (1997) Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of Screenwriting New York: HarperCollins. p. 87 Giroux, Henry (2000) Stealing Innocence: Youth, Corporate Power and the Politics of Culture, New York, St. Martins Press Reynolds, W (2006) Cultural curriculum studies, multiplicity and cinematic-machines Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, Caddo Gap Press Wroe, N (2008) I did my own thing [online] https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/mar/08/featuresreviews.guardianreview11 (accessed December 2016) McGill, R (2003) Goon poets of the black Atlantic: Linton Kwesi Johnsons imagined canon Textual Practice, Vol. 17, Issue 3 Scholastic (2010) Video: Classical Inspiration, The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins [online] http://ww(w.scholastic.com/thehungergames/videos/classical-inspiration.htm (accessed December 2016) Bill, M; Peters, N (2006) Howl on Trial: The Battle for Free Expression City Lights Books. p. 224. Poland as a Potential Market: Environmental Analysis Poland as a Potential Market: Environmental Analysis 1.  INTRODUCTION Servcorp is an Australian-owned services company that specialises in the provision of business solutions. Its main offerings include fully-serviced office packages (office space bundled with IT and communications infrastructure and accompanied by IT and administrative staff), virtual office products such as communications and address services, and meeting rooms for hire (Servcorp, n.d.). Servcorp has expanded its operations into New Zealand, the U.S., Asia, and Europe. While the company operates in the UK, Belgium, and France, it does not currently operate in Poland. In this report, I will analyse five environmental factors relevant to the consideration of Poland as a potential market for Servcorp. These are the country’s political and legal environment, economic environment, trade and financial environment, social and cultural environment, and infrastructure. The ensuing discussion will integrate these findings and provide an overall outlook for Poland. Finally, based on these analyses, a number of recommendations will be put forward regarding Servcorp’s potential expansion into Poland. 3.  ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT 3.1.  Political and legal environment Poland has become one of the most politically stable European countries since it joined the European Union (EU) in 2004 (Bujnicki, 2013). In 2012, Poland ranked below the OECD average on the FDI Regulatory Restrictiveness Index (where a lower score indicates fewer restrictions on FDI) (OECD, 2012). Poland also has a number of state aid measures in place to attract foreign investment. For example, the country has 14 Special Economic Zones; these areas have relaxed income taxation rules and have the appropriate infrastructure in place for starting a business, though businesses require a license to operate in these zones (Lex Mundi, 2013). In Poland, then, Servcorp would find political environment that actively encourages FDI with the view that it is vital to developing the country’s economy. While Poland has few restrictions on FDI, its overall regulatory environment is somewhat complex. The World Bank (2013) ranked Poland 45 of 189 countries on the ease of doing business in 2013, though pointed out that the country’s tax system remains complex and outdated. It takes an average of 685 days to enforce contracts in Poland compared to the OECD average of 529 days, and a number of other bureaucratic hurdles remain (World Bank, 2013). For Servcorp, these factors mean that the company might have to do substantial research into Poland’s tax system, as it contains intricacies not present in Australia’s taxation laws. Property registration is a vital consideration for Servcorp, as the nature of the business means that they must acquire office space to hire out to clients as well as a building for their own use. The World Bank (2013) ranked Poland 54 on the ease of registering property. This is compared with a rank of 40 for Australia; however, there is only one more procedure involved in registering property in Poland than there is in Australia, so red tape in this arena is only slightly more pronounced. 3.2.  Economic environment Real GDP growth in Poland ranged from 1.6% to 6.8% during the period 2005-2012; Poland was the only country in the EU to experience a growth in GDP during the 2008-2009 global financial crisis (OECD, 2013). Real GDP in Poland is expected to grow by 2.7% in 2014 and 3.3% in 2015 (OECD, 2013). However, Poland experienced a small slump in economic growth in 2013; recent changes in fiscal policy have been aimed at encouraging economic growth through expanding the budget deficit and eliminating restrictions on fiscal stimulus measures (Onoszko Krasuski, 2013). Overall, demand for the modern services provided by Servcorp may increase as Poland’s citizens experience an increase in wealth and the economy continues to grow at a healthy rate as a result of these fiscal measures. The slight downturn in real GDP growth in 2013 has been accompanied by low inflation (Eglitis, 2013). This is promising for Servcorp, as it means that the business may be in a better position to make long-term plans with the knowledge that their purchasing power will not decline, and borrowing costs may be lower. With the Polish government’s planned relaxation of fiscal policy, however, Servcorp must continue to track changes in inflation given that these measures may work to raise inflation. 3.3.  Trade and financial environment Relevant bilateral agreements between Australia and Poland include the Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement and the Double Taxation Agreement (DFAT, 2013). These agreements ensure that the interests of foreign investors are protected in Poland, and in the case of the latter agreement, that foreign businesses do not have to pay taxes on their business profits in each of the two countries. In short, both agreements are conducive to Servcorp doing business in Poland. A discussion regarding tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade in Poland will not take place here as Servcorp is not seeking to export to or import from Poland—rather, this report considers the risks and opportunities Servcorp faces in establishing operations in Poland. For similar reasons, free trade agreements that Poland has with other European countries will not be discussed here. In 2012, Poland ranked 37 on the Financial Development Index, which along with other factors, considers a country’s financial stability (World Economic Forum, 2012). Specifically, the WEF found that Poland performed particularly well in terms of the stability of its exchange rate and banking system. The leniency with which currency transactions are treated in Poland depends heavily upon the nature of the relationship between the transactor’s home country and Poland (Lex Mundi, 2013). Because Australia has a tax treaty with Poland (ATO, 2012), Australians can expect to face minimal problems when engaging in currency transactions in Poland. It appears that Servcorp would face little financial risk in the country. 3.4.  Social and cultural environment In Poland, 60.9% of the total population live in urban areas (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). This is compared to 80% in the UK, 97% in Belgium, and 85% in France. Poland’s comparatively low rate of urbanisation suggests that there may be less of a demand for the services that Servcorp offers (office space, IT and communications infrastructure for businesses) in Poland compared with the other European countries in which the company operates. Religion plays a prominent role in Poland, with 89.8% of the population identifying as Roman Catholic (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). Servcorp must recognise and close business on religious occasions that are not recognised as national holidays in Australia, such as Corpus Christi. Poland also tends to score highly on uncertainty avoidance, meaning that citizens may reject unorthodox or innovative ideas put forward by some businesses (The Hofstede Centre, n.d.). This poses a small risk to Servcorp given that much of their product offering rests on their â€Å"virtual office† innovation; Poles may be wary of this unfamiliar idea. In terms of corruption, Poland’s score on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) in 2013 was 60 of a possible 100 (where 100 indicates no corruption whatsoever), above the world average (Transparency International, 2013). However, there is some concern that Poland does not have the appropriate frameworks in place to manage the growing risk of foreign bribery that comes with its expanding economy (OECD, 2013). Servcorp must be aware of this risk while simultaneously recognising that bribery is not an endemic part of Polish culture. 3.5.  Infrastructure Poland’s score on the Logistics Performance Index (LPI) in 2012 was 3.10 (where the maximum possible score is 5) (World Bank, 2012). This is substantially lower than the 2012 scores received by the European countries in which Servcorp currently operates (the UK, Belgium, and France, which received scores of 3.95, 4.12, and 3.96 respectively). The OECD (2013) remarked that the quality of Poland’s transport and communications infrastructure â€Å"are among the lowest in the OECD† (p. 217). A finding of particular concern is that Poland’s fixed broadband coverage is the lowest in the EU, at only 69.1% (Point Topic, 2012). Poland’s relatively low fixed broadband coverage may prove problematic for Servcorp given that a substantial portion of their business model rests on their provision of modern IT and communications infrastructure to organisations. When acquiring office space for company use as well as for hiring out to clients, a constant concern may be whether or not there is broadband access at that location. Though this is an issue, things may be set to improve: a joint venture between Hawe and TP Teltech is aimed at substantially improving Poland’s broadband infrastructure (van Blommestein, 2012). 5.  REFERENCES Australian Taxation Office. (2012). Countries that have a tax treaty with Australia. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.ato.gov.au/General/International-tax-agreements/In-detail/Tax-treaties/Countries-that-have-a-tax-treaty-with-Australia/ Bujnicki, P. (2013, February 23). Zloty climbs as Fitch revises Poland rating outlook to positive. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-22/zloty-climbs-as-fitch-revises-poland-rating-outlook-to-positive.html Central Intelligence Agency (2013). The World Factbook: Poland. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pl.html DFAT. (2013). Poland country brief. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/poland/poland_brief.html Eglitis, A. (2013, November 15). Polish October inflation rate drops to lowest in four months. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-14/polish-october-inflation-rate-drops-to-lowest-in-four-months.html Lex Mundi. (2013). Doing business in Poland. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.lexmundi.com/lexmundi/Guides_To_Doing_Business.asp Ministry of Treasury (2012). Fast growth of business services sector in Poland and prospects of its continuation – business services centers are becoming Polish specialty. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://msp.gov.pl/en/polish-economy/economic-news/3641,Fast-growth-of-business-services-sector-in-Poland-and-prospects-of-its-continuat.html OECD (2012). FDI Regulatory Restrictiveness Index. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/investment/fdiindex.htm OECD. (2013a). Country statistical profile: Poland. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/country-statistical-profile-poland_20752288-table-pol OECD. (2013b). Poland – Economic forecast summary. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/eco/outlook/polandeconomicforecastsummary.htm OECD. (2013a). Poland needs strategy to meet growing risk of foreign bribery. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/daf/anti-bribery/polandneedsstrategytomeetgrowingriskofforeignbribery.htm OECD. (2013b). Economic policy reforms: Going for growth 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.oecd.org/inclusive-growth/Economic%20Policy%20Reforms%202013%20Going%20for%20Growth.pdf Onoszko, M., Krasuski, K. (2013, July 17). Poland to relax budget and fiscal rules to stimulate economy. Bloomberg News. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-07-16/polish-government-relaxes-budget-fiscal-rules-to-boost-economy.html Point Topic. (2012). Broadband coverage in Europe in 2012: Mapping progress towards the coverage objectives of the Digital Agenda. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://point-topic.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Point-Topic-Broadband-Coverage-in-Europe-in-2012-Final-Report-20130813.pdf Servcorp. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved January 6, 2014, from http://www.servcorp.com.au/en/about-us/ The Hofstede Center. (n.d.). Poland. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://geert-hofstede.com/poland.html Transparency International. (2013). Corruption Perceptions Index 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2013/results/#myAnchor1 van Blommestein. (2012). Is Poland finally getting out of the broadband slow lane? Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://www.zdnet.com/is-poland-finally-getting-out-of-the-broadband-slow-lane-7000003129/ World Bank. (2012). Logistics performance index: Quality of trade and transport-related infrastructure [Data set]. Retrieved January 7, 2014, from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/LP.LPI.INFR.XQ World Bank. (2013). Doing business 2014. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/Documents/Annual-Reports/English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf World Economic Forum. (2012). The Financial Development Report 2012. Retrieved January 5, 2014, from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_FinancialDevelopmentReport_2012.pdf

Minimising IT Project Management Failure

Minimising IT Project Management Failure 2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE The following sections will provide a critical review of the research work that had been undertaken. This information is relevant to the project and most importantly is associated with the project aims and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to achieve a better understanding in some of the areas considered for this research project. 2.1 Project Management The fundamental aspect of this research is project management as it focuses on how IT project management failure can be minimised. There are numerous definitions of project management; one definition given by (The Project Management Institute, 2009) states; â€Å"The application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirements† According to (Lewis, 1995) however, project management is the planning, scheduling, and controlling of project activities to achieve project objectives. The first definition of project management focuses more on the soft skills of project management. The definition of soft skills given by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) is â€Å"Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and  harmoniously with other people† In comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what actually is required. Although Lewiss description is not invalid, it gives a more generalised approach to project management highlighting the fundamental points. These two definitions contain different characteristics that are important to project management but what both of these definitions have in common is completion of the project requirements or activities. To generalise project management is to apply certain personnel management skills and the application of knowledge, planning and scheduling to achieve a desired objective. 2.2 Project Methodologies and Frameworks Yardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming why many IT projects fail. Yardley (2002) states that if something was to fail and keep on failing then at some point there would be gradual improvements to why failure occurs so often in the particular area. Gradual improvements should have been made from the lessons learnt from the failure of IT projects over a period of time. However this has not been the case as there have been many failures in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common reasons for IT failure given by (Computer Weekly, 2010) are; Commencing work too early Ambiguous contracts Inadequate estimation of work Breaking the contract Lack of engagement Al-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests that the IT industry is still young compared to other industries such as manufacturing but still attributes failure to the project management methodologies. Therefore the IT industry is still yet to formulate the needed operational standards and procedures. However as the following sections will clarify, there are â€Å"guidelines, frameworks, rules, methods† in place to counter such argument. These will be identified and critically evaluated in the following. With all these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of failure in IT as stated by (Yardley, 2002). 2.2.1 Managing a project Lewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of Project Management, gave a generalised approach to what a project contains. At each relevant step, questions are to be asked by a project manager for them to consider. Lewis gives a brief indication on these steps that are considered for managing a project as illustrated below in Fig.1 Figure 1 above illustrates a general approach to project management which consists of six main areas. The illustration identifies how the project is to be started up, planned, controlled and how the project is to close. On this basis of managing a project can seem simple enough however the accomplishment of each area is a different matter, hence the number of failures within IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the reason for failure is due to project management processes and the aligning of IT within the organisational structure. This view is also agreed by (Al-Ahmad et al.,2009) as project management discipline in most organisations are minimal they do not have the infrastructure to provide; education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow projects to achieve successful completion. Both these authors views are correct to some extent; this is because the project management processes are not followed exactly. For example, the reasons for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states project work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the project effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some degree. This is because some companies may not have sufficient resources to provide training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten years there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there are more projects then there were ten years ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to state organisations are becoming more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that staffs are managing projects without having the project manager title. 2.2.2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) The PMBOK guide provides the fundamental framework which is an industry standard to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum knowledge that is required of a manager in order for the manager to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a standard but also goes on to say it defines what is to be best practice on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are affiliated with the Project Management Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI meet every few years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK Guide. There have been a number of guides produced over the years with the latest version in 2008. The following sections are a brief description of the two subject areas of PMBOK which are project processes and knowledge areas adapted from (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to provide managers an overview and critical review of these areas; Project Processes There are five main processes to the PMBOK that are used to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five out of the six areas already identified; Initiating The initiating process is where the project is defined, project sponsor is on board, project manager, the team and the requirements are identified. Planning Times scales are drawn up, scope of the project is defined in detail, risks and resources are also identified. Executing The team executes the work that needs to be done in order to achieve its objectives. The project manager in this process co-ordinate the activities within the project, some of these include managing the resources and contractors. Monitoring and Controlling Monitoring the situation and analysing what stage it should be against the project plan. The controlling of the project is achieved by comparing what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan. Closing Ensure all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for future projects. Knowledge Areas Project managers should also be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a set of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literature material and available tools in the management, executive education, organizational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010). Project Integration Management Integration ensures that the project is planned properly, executed and controlled. The project manager must co-ordinate and integrates each activity in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but also add the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human side of planning. Project Scope Management Schwalbe (2009) definition of project scope is to define in detail the scope or work required for the project, a view also shared by (Phillips, 2007; Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is expected from the project. This is where one of the key components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not striving for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also adds to create a scope, several inputs are required. The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it costs (Phillips, 2007). For example, The National Insurance Recording System (NIRS2) was to be developed to replace the previous system in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the system size and project scope was bigger and more complex than originally thought. This eventually led to the delay of the system at a cost of  £38 million (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010). PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are: collecting the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (WBS), verifying the scope and control or monitoring the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller and more manageable tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a detailed explanation of WBS as follows; â€Å"A deliverable-orientated grouping of project elements that organises and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work† WBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2 Project Time Management A schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the critical path and then controlling the work actually does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be used to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the simplest form of time management would be to use Milestone List which illustrate when each stage is to be completed. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to display the milestones in a visual format. Figure 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart. Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005; Schwalbe, 2009; www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the First World War. Therefore it can be assumed it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a planning tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, interrelationships among the schedule activities are not depicted and no follow-on implications from schedule movement. Project Cost Management Schwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to satisfy stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated: this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on track to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been many projects that have been completed but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional Health Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. This project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health services. It was to cost  £25.8 million and be completed in five years. However the project was not even completed and ab andoned with the eventual cost rising to  £43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and lack of funds (Chua, 2009). Project Quality Management Saladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of quality management is customer satisfaction. However (Stackpole, 2010) states quality management is applied to the project and product. Although in essence both these authors are correct, as providing quality throughout the project and the products will provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project quality management is a difficult knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts base quality on â€Å"Conformance to requirements† which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process. The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 4; 1) Plan Quality Schwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves identifying the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be used; ISO 9000/2000: The International Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management system can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree and explain adhering to the processes approved by the IOS will produce a consistent output. Six Sigma: Pyzdek and Keller (2009) define six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proven quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business performance. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC: define, measure, analyse, improve, control. Total Quality Management (TQM): a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the needs of customers consistently and continuous improvement in every aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is responsible for quality. It is designed to enable an organisation to gain competitive advantage by striving to meet 100% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002) 2) Perform Quality Assurance The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines quality assurance as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis and Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project. 3) Perform Quality Control Monitoring and recording the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analysis as stated by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and identify that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are inspection based. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrophic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009); One of the reasons for failure was the sheer expanse of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York. Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be built in one year, but was estimated to take four years. No experience of dealing with such a large project, Conflicts with contractors, Poor management of user expectation, Continuous changes. Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the importance of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality. Project Human Resource Management Identifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their roles and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. Also the identification of key stakeholders within the project is made here. Project Communications Management Communication is vital to any project; (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the communication knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project. Project Risk Management Kerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or practise of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk response strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following: Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People. Project Procurement Management Determining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired. The PMBOK provides a great platform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers proven techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as Fujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies â€Å"What† the project might require rather than â€Å"How† to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is why it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful proven practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its disadvantages; PMBOK poin ts out human resource management as important but fails to miss out the need to document the processes. The reason why it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a later date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. Another disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of various project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would therefore need to consult specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008). 2.2.3 PRINCE2 Methodology Hedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the United Kingdom (UK) Government and is widely recognised in the private sector. Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project. PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an earlier model called PROMPT; PRINCE took over from PROMT within Government projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC) PRINCE2 Process Model In the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002) The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people fall into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of management; Directing a Project (DP) DP is aimed at the Project Board: the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls through a number of decision points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right track, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the day to day activities of the project manager. Starting up a Project (SU) A pre-project process designed to ensure the basic elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project Mandate which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be. Initiating a Project (IP) The team decides whether it is feasible for them to proceed with the project and if feasible then a business Case is produced. Other key activities here are setting up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take ownership of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely. Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not covered or examples given as it only states a large portion of documentation in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and actual practise is different. Controlling a Stage (CS) The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. Other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting. Managing Product Delivery (MP) Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining approval for the completed products. Managing Stage Boundaries (SB) This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to assure the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to continue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects. Closing the Project (CP) Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report. Planning (PL) Planning is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned below: Planning for an Initiation Stage Planning for a Project Planning a Stage Producing an Exception Plan As previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentation, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects really fail or is it just a widely used perception of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted. Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and not reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is viable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in Table 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and fixed on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with unnecessary processes (Charvat, 2003). Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of th e need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK which focuses on soft skills such as people management. There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are; 2.2.4 Waterfall Methodology The waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002; Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed before moving on to the next in a sequential manner. Figure 6 shows the waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another. The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3 Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be applied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always reflect on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a phase by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives. 2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing an Minimising IT Project Management Failure Minimising IT Project Management Failure 2.0 REVIEW OF EXISTING KNOWLEDGE The following sections will provide a critical review of the research work that had been undertaken. This information is relevant to the project and most importantly is associated with the project aims and objectives. A variety of sources were analysed in order to achieve a better understanding in some of the areas considered for this research project. 2.1 Project Management The fundamental aspect of this research is project management as it focuses on how IT project management failure can be minimised. There are numerous definitions of project management; one definition given by (The Project Management Institute, 2009) states; â€Å"The application of knowledge, skills, tools and technique to project activities to meet project requirements† According to (Lewis, 1995) however, project management is the planning, scheduling, and controlling of project activities to achieve project objectives. The first definition of project management focuses more on the soft skills of project management. The definition of soft skills given by the (Oxford Dictionary, 2010) is â€Å"Personal attributes that enable someone to interact effectively and  harmoniously with other people† In comparison to Lewis this is more specific to what actually is required. Although Lewiss description is not invalid, it gives a more generalised approach to project management highlighting the fundamental points. These two definitions contain different characteristics that are important to project management but what both of these definitions have in common is completion of the project requirements or activities. To generalise project management is to apply certain personnel management skills and the application of knowledge, planning and scheduling to achieve a desired objective. 2.2 Project Methodologies and Frameworks Yardley (2002) identifies it is overwhelming why many IT projects fail. Yardley (2002) states that if something was to fail and keep on failing then at some point there would be gradual improvements to why failure occurs so often in the particular area. Gradual improvements should have been made from the lessons learnt from the failure of IT projects over a period of time. However this has not been the case as there have been many failures in IT, with the same problems reoccurring. For example, common reasons for IT failure given by (Computer Weekly, 2010) are; Commencing work too early Ambiguous contracts Inadequate estimation of work Breaking the contract Lack of engagement Al-Ahmed et al (2009) suggests that the IT industry is still young compared to other industries such as manufacturing but still attributes failure to the project management methodologies. Therefore the IT industry is still yet to formulate the needed operational standards and procedures. However as the following sections will clarify, there are â€Å"guidelines, frameworks, rules, methods† in place to counter such argument. These will be identified and critically evaluated in the following. With all these clarification in place it is overwhelming to understand the amount of failure in IT as stated by (Yardley, 2002). 2.2.1 Managing a project Lewis (2007) in his book, Fundamentals of Project Management, gave a generalised approach to what a project contains. At each relevant step, questions are to be asked by a project manager for them to consider. Lewis gives a brief indication on these steps that are considered for managing a project as illustrated below in Fig.1 Figure 1 above illustrates a general approach to project management which consists of six main areas. The illustration identifies how the project is to be started up, planned, controlled and how the project is to close. On this basis of managing a project can seem simple enough however the accomplishment of each area is a different matter, hence the number of failures within IT. Al Neimat (2005) identifies the reason for failure is due to project management processes and the aligning of IT within the organisational structure. This view is also agreed by (Al-Ahmad et al.,2009) as project management discipline in most organisations are minimal they do not have the infrastructure to provide; education, training, or management disciplines in order to allow projects to achieve successful completion. Both these authors views are correct to some extent; this is because the project management processes are not followed exactly. For example, the reasons for failure as previously mentioned by (Computer Weekly, 2010) states project work is commenced too early and highlighting some do not plan the project effectively. Al-Ahmad et al (2009) view is correct to some degree. This is because some companies may not have sufficient resources to provide training and education in project management. However (Archbold, 2008) states that over the past ten years there had been a rise in interest in project management. Archbold (2008) states the reason for the rise in interest is because there are more projects then there were ten years ago. Archbold (2008) goes on to state organisations are becoming more successful and growing very quickly and recognising that staffs are managing projects without having the project manager title. 2.2.2 Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) The PMBOK guide provides the fundamental framework which is an industry standard to managing a project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the real use of the PMBOK guide is to provide companies how to manage project irrespective of the characteristics. It provides the minimum knowledge that is required of a manager in order for the manager to be effective. Stackpole (2010) agrees that the PMBOK is a standard but also goes on to say it defines what is to be best practice on most of the project most of the time. The PMBOK guide is created from individuals who are affiliated with the Project Management Institute (PMI). The members of the PMI meet every few years to update and input their intellectual knowledge into the PMBOK Guide. There have been a number of guides produced over the years with the latest version in 2008. The following sections are a brief description of the two subject areas of PMBOK which are project processes and knowledge areas adapted from (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to provide managers an overview and critical review of these areas; Project Processes There are five main processes to the PMBOK that are used to manage projects. In comparison to the general guideline mentioned in 2.2.1 the PMBOK covers five out of the six areas already identified; Initiating The initiating process is where the project is defined, project sponsor is on board, project manager, the team and the requirements are identified. Planning Times scales are drawn up, scope of the project is defined in detail, risks and resources are also identified. Executing The team executes the work that needs to be done in order to achieve its objectives. The project manager in this process co-ordinate the activities within the project, some of these include managing the resources and contractors. Monitoring and Controlling Monitoring the situation and analysing what stage it should be against the project plan. The controlling of the project is achieved by comparing what the project has achieved against what was outlined in the project plan. If it not according to plan then corrective actions is taken to bring it back to target if not going according to plan. Closing Ensure all objectives are met and stakeholders are happy with a review for lessons learnt for future projects. Knowledge Areas Project managers should also be familiar with the following knowledge areas to be considered as a professional. Each knowledge area contains a set of project management processes (Abdomerovic, 2008). Knowledge Areais aimed at promoting and sharing with some of the best scholarly literature material and available tools in the management, executive education, organizational behaviour and organizational psychology fields (Delegate Management Services, 2010). Project Integration Management Integration ensures that the project is planned properly, executed and controlled. The project manager must co-ordinate and integrates each activity in order to achieve the objectives of the project. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree with the definition given by (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) but also add the project manager must have overall vision of the project and must understand the technical as well as the human side of planning. Project Scope Management Schwalbe (2009) definition of project scope is to define in detail the scope or work required for the project, a view also shared by (Phillips, 2007; Nokes and Kelly, 2007). Phillips (2007) states the project manager and the project team must have clear vision of what is expected from the project. This is where one of the key components of project failure arises when people on the project team are not striving for the same goals, which includes the stakeholders of the project. However Phillips agrees with the PMBOK guide but also adds to create a scope, several inputs are required. The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines project scope management to include the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Scope management as identified, only focuses on the output of the project and what is required to achieve the project deliverables. It does not have any concerns as to the time it takes to achieve the objectives or how much it costs (Phillips, 2007). For example, The National Insurance Recording System (NIRS2) was to be developed to replace the previous system in 1997. However one of the underlying problems was as the project commenced it became clear the system size and project scope was bigger and more complex than originally thought. This eventually led to the delay of the system at a cost of  £38 million (www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk, 2010). PMBOK identifies there to be 5 areas of project scope which are: collecting the requirements, defining the scope, creating a Work break-down structure (WBS), verifying the scope and control or monitoring the scope. WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and project work into smaller and more manageable tasks (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). Haugan (2002) gives a detailed explanation of WBS as follows; â€Å"A deliverable-orientated grouping of project elements that organises and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work† WBS allows the project manager to integrate each activity and prioritise certain tasks over others. An example of a WBS is given below in Fig. 2 Project Time Management A schedule is developed to achieve the objectives, estimating the time for each task, determining the critical path and then controlling the work actually does happen. There are a number of project management tools that could be used to manage time. OConchuir (2011) identifies the simplest form of time management would be to use Milestone List which illustrate when each stage is to be completed. OConchuir (2011) also identifies that The Gantt Chart to be a widely used tool to display the milestones in a visual format. Figure 3 illustrates a Gantt Chart. Marmel and Muir (2011) state the Gantt Chart was developed by Henry Gantt in 1910, however (Parviz and Anantatmula,2005; Schwalbe, 2009; www.ganttchartmac.com, 2011) state it was developed in 1917. Chiu (2010) does not specify a specific year, however states that it was developed during the First World War. Therefore it can be assumed it was produced in between the years of 1910 to 1918. The Gantt Chart is easy to understand, modify and is a simple way to depict progress status (Westcott, 2006). However as a planning tool, there are some notable limitations as described by (Springer, 2004). The limitations are that the chart is potentially subjective, interrelationships among the schedule activities are not depicted and no follow-on implications from schedule movement. Project Cost Management Schwalbe (2009) states project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that a project team completes a project within an approved budget. Schwalbe (2009) also states it is the project managers duty to satisfy stakeholders of the project as well as striving to reduce and control costs. It is here the costing of the project is calculated: this involves estimating the resources needed, staff and materials. As the project is conducted, costs are controlled and kept on track to make sure it is kept under or on budget. There have been many projects that have been completed but failed to meet the budget due to the project spiralling out of control. A notable IT project failure was the Wessex Regional Health Authoritys (WRHA) Regional Information Systems Plan (RSIP) in 1984. This project was an initiative to improve the provision of clinical and health services. It was to cost  £25.8 million and be completed in five years. However the project was not even completed and ab andoned with the eventual cost rising to  £43 million. The reason for this high increase was because of overspending, high cost of implementation and lack of funds (Chua, 2009). Project Quality Management Saladis and Kerzner (2009) identifies the main objective of quality management is customer satisfaction. However (Stackpole, 2010) states quality management is applied to the project and product. Although in essence both these authors are correct, as providing quality throughout the project and the products will provide customer satisfaction. Schwalbe (2009) argues project quality management is a difficult knowledge area to define. This is because there are many definitions to quality management and the definitions are still vague. Schwalbe (2009) also identifies some that experts base quality on â€Å"Conformance to requirements† which means project processes and products meeting written specification. In relation to these views of the authors (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) defines project quality management as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfil requirements. Below Fig. 4 is the PMBOK guides quality management process. The PMBOK Guide (2008) identifies managers have to grasp three aspects of quality management which includes processes and activities as shown in Fig. 4; 1) Plan Quality Schwalbe (2009) states in the planning aspect of quality it involves identifying the standards that are relevant to the projects and how to satisfy these standards. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agrees and identifies a few standards that can be used; ISO 9000/2000: The International Organisation of Standardisation (IOS) this is to provide a framework around which a quality management system can effectively be implemented www.bsi-emea.com, 2011. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) agree and explain adhering to the processes approved by the IOS will produce a consistent output. Six Sigma: Pyzdek and Keller (2009) define six sigma as a rigorous, focused, highly effective implementation of proven quality principles and techniques. Its aim is to have virtually error-free business performance. Saladis and Kerzner (2009) state the methodology for meeting these performance levels is to follow a procedure referred to as DMAIC: define, measure, analyse, improve, control. Total Quality Management (TQM): a comprehensive and integrated way of managing any organisation to meet the needs of customers consistently and continuous improvement in every aspect of the organisations activities (Evans et al.,1996). It is an approach where everyone is responsible for quality. It is designed to enable an organisation to gain competitive advantage by striving to meet 100% customer satisfaction (Yardley, 2002) 2) Perform Quality Assurance The PMBOK Guide (2008) defines quality assurance as the process of regularly evaluating the overall performance of the project to ensure the project will satisfy quality standards. Francis and Horine (2003) agree and explain quality assurance involves making sure everything is done correctly and fulfils the requirements of the project. 3) Perform Quality Control Monitoring and recording the results to see if they meet the requirements (The PMBOK Guide, 2008). This is to be achieved by statistical process control and Pareto analysis as stated by (Barkley and Saylor, 2001) and identify that this an important factor of quality even though these tools are inspection based. For example in 1992 BAE Automated System was awarded a $175.6 million contract by the city of Denver to build an airport with an integrated baggage handling system for the new Denver International Airport (DIA). This system was supposed to route and deliver luggage in the airport using unmanned carts. However it was a catastrophic failure due to the following reasons as stated by (Chua, 2009); One of the reasons for failure was the sheer expanse of the DIA it was twice the size of Manhattan, New York. Overly ambitious, as it was asked to be built in one year, but was estimated to take four years. No experience of dealing with such a large project, Conflicts with contractors, Poor management of user expectation, Continuous changes. Eventual cost was close to $2 billion over budget and sixteen months behind schedule. This example stipulates the importance of having quality aspects imbedded into the project. The project should have followed some quality guidelines such as TQM where this approach identifies everyone responsible for the quality. Project Human Resource Management Identifying the personnel needed to do the job by giving their roles and responsibilities within the team, managing and motivating that team. Also the identification of key stakeholders within the project is made here. Project Communications Management Communication is vital to any project; (The PMBOK Guide, 2008) acknowledges that the communication knowledge area involves planning and disseminating information relevant to the project. Project Risk Management Kerzner (2009) defines risk management as the act or practise of dealing with risk. This includes planning for risk, identifying potential project risk, analysing and prioritising risk, developing risk response strategies and monitoring and controlling risks to determine how they have changed. Dinsmore et al (2010) agrees and makes a valid point identifying that all projects will have a certain element of risk. This is because no two projects are the same as some are characterized by the following: Uniqueness, Complexity, Change, Assumptions, Constraints, Dependencies and most importantly People. Project Procurement Management Determining which goods and services are necessary for the project and how they are to be acquired. The PMBOK provides a great platform for understand how to manage a project. The PMBOK is a framework that covers proven techniques and practices given by existing project managers. The framework is used in major organisation such as Fujitsu and Boeing Aircraft (Blokdijk, 2008). It is more associated as knowledge based framework as it identifies â€Å"What† the project might require rather than â€Å"How† to manage a project. It does not show in great detail exactly how to go about managing a project which is why it is mentioned also as a framework and more as a guideline. The reason for identifying the method as knowledge based is because every few years PMI meet to update and input their intellectual knowledge. This can be an advantage as members input the knowledge of successful proven practices needed to manage the life-cycle of a project. For each process it outlines which necessary tools and techniques are needed. The PMBOK however has its disadvantages; PMBOK poin ts out human resource management as important but fails to miss out the need to document the processes. The reason why it is a disadvantage is because by not documenting the process, it fails to provide information for anyone else to come into the project at a later date, or when re-evaluating the project at the end why such action was taken or needs to be taken. Another disadvantage is it provides minimal amount of coverage of various project management techniques such as WBS or Gantt Chart. Managers would therefore need to consult specialised texts to grasp the subject further. It is also complex for smaller projects and has to be adapted specifically to the industry area (www.theprojectmanagement.com, 2008). 2.2.3 PRINCE2 Methodology Hedeman et al (2010) identifies PRINCE2 as an acronym for PRoject IN Controlled Environments and is a structured method for managing projects. Hedeman et al (2010) also states that PRINCE2 is a de facto standard that is used by the United Kingdom (UK) Government and is widely recognised in the private sector. Van Bon and Verheijen (2006) also agree the PRINCE2 methodology as a de facto standard in the UK and widely used in the Netherlands and Australia. Lock (2007) identifies that the PRINCE2 methodology was at first intended for use on IT projects, however it has since emerged to be effective in any given project. PRINCE2 is a set of activities to achieve its business product with the organisation structure defining responsibilities to manage the project. PRINCE was established and launched in 1989 and was based on an earlier model called PROMPT; PRINCE took over from PROMT within Government projects. PRINCE2 was published in 1996 and is the trade mark of the Office of Government Commerce (OGC) PRINCE2 Process Model In the following section is a brief overview of the process model which has been summarised from the (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002) The PRINCE2 Process model consists of a number of distinctive management processes. Graham (2010) states most people fall into the trap of following this model exactly as a standard approach. It is therefore in the best interest of the project manager not to blindly follow the exact approach stated in the model. Depending on the experience of the project manager and what the project needs elements of the model can be taken and applied to a particular project. Figure 5 shows the different levels of management; Directing a Project (DP) DP is aimed at the Project Board: the board manage and monitor the projects by reports and controls through a number of decision points. Key decision points are initiating the project on the right track, commitment of more resources after checking results and project closure. This process does not cover the day to day activities of the project manager. Starting up a Project (SU) A pre-project process designed to ensure the basic elements are in place. In this process the project team is assembled and a project brief is prepared. This process also brings out the Project Mandate which defines the reason for the project and what the outcome is to be. Initiating a Project (IP) The team decides whether it is feasible for them to proceed with the project and if feasible then a business Case is produced. Other key activities here are setting up project files, encouraging the Project Board to take ownership of the project, assembling the Project Initiation Document (PID), ensuring the investment and time required is considered wisely. Portman (2009) identifies different steps to this process in comparison to (Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2, Office of Government Commerce, 2002). Portman (2009) focuses more on the people aspect as it states that all parties are to be aware of the product that is to be delivered, at what time, and quality aspects. Also management and responsibilities are made clear. Both these texts identify valid points which will enable a project manager to clarify what is to happen at this stage. But raises questions as to why the people aspects are not covered or examples given as it only states a large portion of documentation in the Managing Successful Project with PRINCE2. It gives indication that theory and actual practise is different. Controlling a Stage (CS) The Project Manager monitors and controls the day to day activities and forms the core role of the Project Manager. Other key activities include authorising, gathering progress information, reviewing stages and reporting. Managing Product Delivery (MP) Ensure planned products are created and delivered by the project. The process makes sure that the work is being done, ensuring that products meet quality criterias set. It makes sure that the work on products allocated to the team is effectively authorised and agreed. Other key activities include assessing work progress and forecasts regularly, obtaining approval for the completed products. Managing Stage Boundaries (SB) This process dictates what should be done towards the end of the stage. The objectives for this process are to assure the Project Board that all deliverables have been completed for the current stage plan, provide information for the Project Board to asses on whether to continue with the project or not, provide enough information to approve the current stage and authorise the start of the next stage and record any lessons to be learned for later projects. Closing the Project (CP) Portman (2009) states this process are the activities required to close the project and release the project manager. The project could either be the actual project end or a premature end. Objectives here are to check to see if the PID objectives or aim have been met, confirm acceptance of the product, and make recommendation for future work. Resources are freed up for allocation to other activities and prepare end project report. Planning (PL) Planning is a repeatable process and plays an important role in other processes. A few are mentioned below: Planning for an Initiation Stage Planning for a Project Planning a Stage Producing an Exception Plan As previously stated PRINCE2 is the de facto standard for the UK Government and the reason for this is the attention to detail, documentation, business justification and emphasis on dividing the project into manageable and controllable stages (www.prince2.com, 2011). There are many documentation points which enable everyone to know what has happened and how they can improve for the future. Although this methodology may be unsuitable for smaller projects, elements of this methodology can be taken out such as area of control (Bentley, 2005) and implemented into managing a project. However, the question is that if this is such a widely used methodology and is the de facto standard used by the Government, then why are IT projects still failing? And why do IT projects really fail or is it just a widely used perception of IT always failing? These are some of the questions which are going to be explored as the literature review is conducted. Analysing PRINCE2, it is evident why managers and the UK Government use this methodology. This is because it allows the manager to build on experience and the manager to be proactive and not reactive (Harris, 2010). It ensures the project process is viable to senior management (Yardley, 2002). By identifying early warning signs of potential problems and allowing proactive measures to be taken to help alleviate them. The advantages and disadvantages are identified in Table 2. The key point to consider is some project managers fail to differentiate that this is a methodology and does not need to be followed exactly to each and every point, process or technique. Project managers become too inflexible and fixed on the idea that they have to follow each and every step which can make the project long and with unnecessary processes (Charvat, 2003). Another key point regarding PRINCE2 in comparison to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is the PRINCE2 misses the importance of th e need of soft skills (Charvat, 2003). PRINCE2 also misses out on areas such as human resources, leadership and management techniques, health and safety. This is different to the PMBOK which focuses on soft skills such as people management. There are numerous benefits for using a structured approach to managing a project. Below are the advantages and disadvantages given by (Office of Government Commerce (OGC), 2002) are; 2.2.4 Waterfall Methodology The waterfall method was developed by Winston W. Royce in the 1970 and is considered to be a traditional approach. This was one of the first formal approaches for information system analysis and design as stated by (Johns, 2002; Carkenord, 2009). The method is a process followed in a sequence where a task is completed before moving on to the next in a sequential manner. Figure 6 shows the waterfall methodology, (Rainardi, 2007) illustrates the approach of the waterfall when one task is completed after another. The advantages and disadvantages to the waterfall methodology according to Charvat (2003) are illustrated in Table 3 Although this is for a software development or information system methodology, the same approach can be applied to a project in completing one section and then moving on to the other. The waterfall however does not always reflect on how a project is undertaken and is rarely done in such a sequential manner. However as (Charvat, 2003) identifies, it does produce a phase by phase checkpoint. This will allow the project to stay on the right track in meeting its objectives. 2.2.5 Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM) SSADM is a structured approach into the analysis and design of developing an